1. Introduction

Assam has been a veritable meeting pot of all branches of human race and of cultures of both hills and plains. Assam “One of greatest routes of migration of main kind” received waves of people of different strains, particularly the Indo-Chinese Mongoloids, pouring into this region from time immemorial,

The Chutiyas are one of the earliest inhabitants of Assam belonging to Tibeto-Burman branch of lndo-Mongoloid ethnic origin. The history of Assarn and the Assamese Chronicles of medieval period suggest that the Chutiyas established their Kingdom in the first half of thirteenth century in eastern most part of Brahmaputra Valley and seventeenth Principalities were under the Chutiya Kingdom till 1523 A.D. However during the region of Ahom king Suhunhmung or Dihingia raja in the year 1523 A.D. the Chutiya territory was annexed by the Ahoms and subjugate it. Subsequently the Chutiya subjects were given away by the Ahorns kings and they migrated to different places inside and outside the Ahom territory. At present the population of the Chutiyas can be counted 10 to 12 lakhs and their social and economic position is very poor.

1.2 Origin of the name: (Meaning associated with the name)

The Chutiyas also known as Chutia, Sutya, Swatya, Swatia, Sootia, Deora or Tiura. There is no any single definition about the term Chutia. Different. Scholars and Historian defines the term in different ways. According to a prominent scholar Rajmuhon Nath the original homeland of the Chutiyas was at the bank of Swati Lake, which is supposed to be situated in the northern part of Himalayas to the east part of Manash lake. In course of time they migrate to south by the bank of river Subansiri following its fertile valley which extend the North-Eastern Part of present Lakhimpur District and finally they settled there. The people of Kamrupa called themselves as Swatia, because they hail from the bank of Swati lake. R.M. Nath was the opined that the term ‘Chutiya’, ‘Sutya’ or iSotiyai have probably derives from its origin Swatia.` He has also jointed out another definition in respect of origin of the term `Chutiya’ or ‘Sutia’. According to him in ancient time, in there was a province called ‘Sutan’ situated in the North-Eastern part of present Bhutan. He has observed that the inhabitant of Bhutan is called Bhutia. Like way, the inhabitant of ‘Sutan’ May also called as ‘Sootia’ or ‘Chutia’.2 It is one of the important definitions for origin of the term Chutiya.

Benudhar Sharma in his article “Chutiya Kristi” observe that the Chutiya lived on the bank of Swati Lake which is situated near the source of river Subansiri. The people who lived on the bank of Swati Lake, they like to identify themselves as ‘Swatia’. He believe that the term `Chutiya’ or ‘Sootia’ or Sutya’ is probably derived from ‘Swatia”.

According to Bishnu Prasad Rabhas the Halali state of Bodo Kachari was situated in the bank of Dibang and Dihong River. This state was established by the Sonovval clan of Bodo Origin. This Kachari clan has fourteenth family and the Sootial family of this Kachari clan seized the ruling power. According to him this Sootial family came to be known as ‘Chutia’ and one of their clan known as ‘Debongia Deori’ speak the Chutiya language of Bodo origin. Thus he has derived the meaning of the term ‘Chutiya’, Sootia’ or ‘Sutiya’ corresponding to Bodo language. In Bodo or Deori Language ‘Je’ or ‘De’ or ‘Ti’ means water or River. ‘Su’ means holly. ‘Su-T’ means holly water or Holly river and hence themselves as ‘Sutia’ or ‘Chutiya’,

Dr. Praban Chandra Saikia defines the meaning of the term iChutia’ or Sutiya’ by referring to the Deori Language. In Deori Chutiya language ‘Su’ means ‘good’, ‘high’ or ‘high quality’, ‘Ti’ means the star of the sky. Thus, he obsirved that the good people or high quality people who came from the star land or the sky or top of the hills; are called ‘Chutiya’ or Sutiyai. Here the ‘Ya’ is added a syllable after the ‘Su-Ti’. 

According to Rajani Kumar Podmapati, the northern side of North-East region is the gate of soul and heaven. The Swati River and Swati state or Sadia is situated near this gate. The people who live in that state are called Chutiya. The hilly areas situated surrounding the temple of Taneswari was the homeland of the Chutiyas.

According to R.M, Nath, China wad known as ‘Chao-Thieus’. The people of northern Burma generally caller China as ‘Thieus’ till date. The meaning of the term ‘Chao-Thieus’ is heavenly land or holy place. This ‘Chao-thieus’ was transformed to ‘Chub-This’ or ‘Zuh-this’ which is resembled to high land or highest place.?

Following this statement of R.M. Bath, Surya Kanta Khanikar, also opined that the people of Mongoloid origin who came from ‘Chao-Thieus’ or ‘Chuh-This’ were called `Chao-This’ or ‘5u-Thia’ at Somarpith (upper most part of Assam). It referred to the people of heavenly land or people of holy land. He observed that according to the language of Deori-Chutiya ‘Su’ means the top of the hill or high land, ‘Ti’ means river and ‘Ya’ means place.

In the light of the above observations made by various scholars in respect of the origin of the term Chutiya. A conclusion can be drawn that there was a branch of Mongoloid people of Bodo origin in the bank of Swati or Sati or Sooti lake near the source of Subansiri River. This is every likely hood that this people had been known as Swatia or Chutia on the basis of the fact that there origin place of habitation was the bank of Swati, Sati or Swat Lake. The legends prevalent among the Chutiyas also support these observation.

1.3 Chutiya: A Term Used in a Derogatory Sense

The term “Chutiya” is often used in a derogatory manner outside Assam, primarily by a significant section of society. It is sometimes employed as an abusive or obscene expression, manifesting in phrases like ‘Chutiyas Sob’, ‘Sutiyami’, or ‘Sutyo’. Such usage reflects the persistent social discrimination faced by the Chutiya community, especially from upper-caste Hindus.

The Chutiyas have historically been subjected to inferior and untouchable treatment across various domains, including education, social interactions, and employment. They are excluded from roles as Bhokotas (religious functionaries) in Sutras (Vaishnavite religious monasteries) and are denied participation in religious functions. Even in Namghars (prayer houses), the Chutiyas are prohibited from sitting in the frontline alongside caste Hindus, perpetuating their outcast status within the Hindu fold.

This systematic marginalization is exemplified in the caste classification list of Assamese society prepared by Moniram Dewan, which underscores caste-based distinctions and discrimination. In response to such humiliation, Sri Sonaram Chutiya, a prominent Chutiya Vaishnavite scholar, established the Srimanta Sankardev Sangha in Assam to advocate for the dignity and rights of the Chutiya community.

1.4 Origin of the community

The Chutiyas of Assam is a branch of the great Bodo group of the Indo-Mongoldoid family who speak the Tibeto-Burma language section.11 It seems that tibese Tibeto-Burma speaking people lived on the banks of the Yang-Tse¬Kiang and the Howang-Ho River. They came down to the Valley of Brahmaputra and made their way into Assam. They extended their settlement throughout the Brahmaputra valley and the adjacent hills on either sides of the mighty river. One of the important groups of these people was the Bodo group which included the Koches, the Kocharis, the Lalung, the Dimasa, the Garo, the
12
Rabha, the Tiwa, the Morans and the Chutiyas. These Bodo groups were the important Indo-Mongoloid people in eastern India and they were spread over the entire Brahmaputra valley and established the main bases of the present day population of this valley. However separation took place among these great Bodo Origin base on their Geographical isolation, Social disunity and political rivalry. They were divided into several groups and changed their

identity Under such waves of separation, the Chutiya also emanated as a separate clan and they established a kingdom in upper most part of Assam.
It was the British who first introduced the extensive Anthropological study in India. The studies, infact from the basis of present races in the subject. The studies should be considered vary authentic because for the British demography study was very important from the point of view of empire Building. Therefore to study the origin of the Chutiyas we first prefer the reference of British scholars. We mentioned here some important reference of British scholars.
John M’cosh mentioned in his Topography of Assam/ that Chutiyas is a hill Tribe like Rabha, Laung and Mikir.13
t Camel E.T. Delton has mentioned in his ‘Descriptive Ethonology of Bengal’ that “the tribes called Bihiya are the same family, and as a tribe of Lalungs in upper Assam claim to be of Chutiya descent, it is not unlikely that all the Lalungs are Chutiyas.14 Colonel Hannay said that “If the dialect spoken by Decries be truly the language of Chutiya, it proves the linguistic affinities of the tribe to be with Garo and Bodo”.15 Willan Hunter observed that “Chutiya; said to be a branch of the Shan tribe, who having overthrown the native dynasty of Assam, were themselves in turn conquered by the Ahoms”.16 In Imperial Gazetteer of India mention have been made that the Chutiyas as a tribe of Bodo origin. 17

2881 it was mentioned that the language spoken by the Deori-Chutiyas has a strong affinity with Kachari, and the Chutiyas may, therefore, be regarded as branch of the Bodo race” 19 According to this census report there have 59163 thousand Chutiyas people in Assam. 2”
In the census report of 1891 the Chutiyas were also listed as forest and hill Tribes.
During the post independence period, the District Gazatteers which are published by the Government of Assam, they have also mentioned the Chutiyas like the Koch and Ahoms are one of the race caste {Plain Tribes) of Assam. Their physical appearance suggests a Mongolian origin, their language, which is still preserved amongst the Deories or priestly clan that belongs to the Bodo family and it seems likely that they are a section of Great Bodo race which includes the Caro, the Kachari and the Tippera. 22
Sidney Endle who studied undertaken research works on the Kacharis had also mentioned that “a branch of the widespread Kachari race, known as Chutiyas, undoubtedly held away in eastern Assam for a lengthened period. The Capital quarters of their the Chutiyas) was at or near the modern Sadiya. 43 He also mentioned that the Morans and the Chutiyas in upper Assam, whose language, not although extinct as yet, though apparently dying out rapidly, would seem to prove them to be closely akin to the Kachari (Bodo) race, z4

Rabhas, Kacharies, Chutiyas, Mikirs and Laungs…. Many of the inhabitants of Lakhirnpur still call themselves Chutiyas;. 25
The Assamese Chronicle writer Podrneswar Nowbaisa Phukan state that Chutiya and Kochari are the same clan and Chutiyas were called Chutia-Kochari at first. 26
Assamese Chronicle writer Moniarm Dewan in his book Turonji Bibekratnal that Borahi, Kochari and the Chutiyas was the first habitant people of Assam. He classified all the inhabitants cast and tribes of Assam according to their social status. Where the hindu Chutiyas social rank is in 17 No’s., Chang Borahi (a sub clan of Chutiya) in 20 Nos., Chutia into 22 Nos., Buruk Chutia into 24 Nos., Mati Borahi (Chutia) into 25 Nos., Barahi into 29 Nos., and Chutia Miri into 36 Nos., 27
According to Konaklal Baruah `Chutia are the tribes of great Bodo origin. 28 Archeologist Raj Mohan Nath also argument same with K.L. Baruah. 29 Dr. Surya Kumar Bhuyan edited the Kachori Burnaji where he mentioned that Chutiyas and Kacharies have the similarities in their religious faith. Both these two clan worship the mother Goddess of Kechuikhati and the God of wealth Kuber. The Kacharis worship the God Kuber as Kubar bri (Male) and Kuber brui (female). A similar legend of “Golden cat” is also prevalent among these both tribes. 3°
The famous linguist & Litterature Kaliram Medhi mentioned in his book “Asomiya Blynkaran Aru Bhosatatro” that during the time of starting the systematic history in Assam the entire land was dominated by the Chutiyas in

east and Kocharies in western part. Both these two tribes descended from Tibentan Origin of great Bodo race. The tribes Garu, Rabha, Lalung, Hazong, Hujai and Dimasa are the other branches of Bodo Origin. 31
The famous literature and linguist Dr. Banikanata Kakoti briefly describes the worship ritualism of 1Kachoikhatai’ or `Tetrneswari Mai’ in his book The Mother Goddess Kamakhya’. According to this description “the people who brought this Goddess to awful prominence were the Chutiyas, a Mongolian tribe who were reigning at Sadiya at the beginning of the thirteenth century. The temple officers were all Chutiyas and the priests called themselves Deories, a title they must have inherited from former ministrants.” 32
Dr, Birinci Kumar Baruah mentioned in his book ‘A Cultural history of Assam’ that the Chutiyas are one of the sub-groups of great Bodo origin like the conch, Kosari, Lalung, Dimasa, Garu, Rabha, Tipura and Moran. 33
According to Dr. fvloheswar Neog, “The Chutiyas are Bodo Origin. He state that from ancient time the Brahmaputra Valley and its surrounding hills area were inhabited by the Tibeto Burman origin Chutiya, Moran, Lalung, Hujai, Dimasa, Kachari, Mech, Rabha, Tipra, Garu and Hazong.34
Dr. Podmeswar Gogoi mentioned in his book The Toi and the Tai Kingdom’ that during the time of advent of Sukafa, the entire eastern Assam was under the tribes of great Bodo Mongoloid. A powerful clan of among this Bodo origin was Chutiaya. They ruled over in the eastern part of Subansiri and Disang river and their capital was at Sadiya. 35

Sorbananclaa Rajkurnar in his book 71-ihose Suwara Sokhcta gosor/ mentions that Chutiyas were descended from mongoloid origin There priestly class Deori language is Bodo origin. 36
According to Dr, Sistridhar Duna, Chutiyas are the Bodo origin and their language is similar with Kachari. 37
According to a famous Anthropologist Dr, Bhuban Mohan Das ‘Chutiyas are the ancient Mongoloid people and they rule over in upper Assam for a long 
a
in the Hen9kukha and the Chandrokanta Abhitthan, the two prominent Assamese dictionary give the term ‘Chutiya’ as an aboriginal tribe of Assam who came from the hills and now settled in the plains. 

The rhutiyu latir Buranje edited by Dr. Swarnalate Baruah and Dr. Danibarudhar Nath (2005) is an authentic source for study the history and culture of the Chutiyas. This book gives thorough and minute study of the origin at Chutiyas and finally it proves that Chutiyas are one of the ancient inhabitants of Assam and they belong to the great Indo-Mongoloid Bodo origin.°

These are the brief Historical and Anthropological data for study the origin of the Chutiyas, There are many other Historical and Anthropological sources available to study the origin of Chutiyas. From the above discussion it is clear that the Chutiyas belong to Indy-Mongoloid origin of great Bodo race. Because their physical features, racial, origin, language, Customs and Culture are similar with present existing plain and hill tribes Assam. The Bodo, Sonowal, Tiwa, Deori, (Conch, Rabha, Mech, Hazong, Hujai, Thengal, Dirnasa, Garu, Moran and Chutiya are the homogenous groups of Mongoloid origin.

1.5 Myths and legends associated with the origin of Chutiyas

There are two popular legends prevalent among the Chutiyas relating to establishment of Chutiya Kingdom and state. According to the first legned the Chutiyas lived on the top of the hills where the sky was just above the head of the people and it disturbed the people by touching their heads_ One day an old woman pushed the sky by a broom and the sky flew away. After the sky flew away, this place became cool and dark, Thereafter, these people came down to the earth and lived in a place called `Sunagia, iSonall’ or `Salab. These people divided into two groups went to another side called Sotai Porbot or Sutaagiri or Setagiri besides a big river. During the time of crossing the river the water the of the river was suddenly over flooded and some peoples were Swept away. They are called Buruk Chutiya.

According to another legend, one day Devi Kechaaikanti (Mother goddess of Chutiya) changed her image as Kiratini (Lady Kirata or Asura) appears before a buffalo boy impressed by his ‘pepabodan’ (A kind a flute made of buffalo horn and the player blows across the hole at end of the reed), The Devi asked the boy to go with her. But, the boy refused to go with her, Then she asked for his white buffalo, which the boy refuses to give. The Kiratini asked him to devote it from his soul and she promised to give him a boon by which he will became the king. The boy agreed upon it, and the Devi gave him the tricks that the next day when the fisher women give him fish, he will keep it under a pot covering it, for the next day. Next day, when he opens the pot, he will find something there, which will be this royal property. And, she advised him to worship it secretly and not to transfer it to other person except kingship. Accordingly, the boy finds in it a Golden cat, Golden shield and sword, Golden stick, Golden umbrella and a piece of iron swelling in place of fish. After possessing these properties the boy became king and established the Chutiya Kingdom.

1.6 Sub-Castes and Sub-Tribes of Chutiya

The Chutiya are mainly divided into five branches viz. Hindu Chutiya, Deori Chutiya, Ahom Chutiya, Miri Chutiya or Chutiya Miri and Borahi Chutiya, 42 This division is based mainly on social assimilation or integration and religious practices/ usage. It is said that after the subjugation of Chutiya territory by the Ahoms, the displaced and scattered Chutiya people were converted and integrated with the Hinduism. They are called the Hindu Chutiyas. 43 The term ‘Hindu Chutiya’ indicates that the Chutiyas were non-Hindu and non-Aryan but Hinduised. They still are observing the tribal customs and aboriginal religious practices. They mainly use this ‘Hindu’ garb to rescue from negligence and derogatory treatments/ remarks of upper caste people, In this way, those who profess the Ahom culture are identified as Ahom Chutiyas.” Further, those who came into contact with the Borahis, by pursuing their traits and culture are identified as Borahi Chutiyas.45 On the other hand, the Miri Chutiya or Chutiya Miri is came to identified by way of integration and assimilation processes:16

Deori-Chutiya is the priestly clan of the Chutiyas. It is a religious section who have maintained the aboriginal religious practices from earlier. Deories also have four clans and the Dibongia clan of Deories preserved the original languages of Chutiyas, Presently, the Deori Chutiyas are known as Deoris only and they are already included the scheduled tribes list of plain tribes of Assam.1′

These are the sub-caste, sub-tribes and clans of Chutiyas, Among these castes and sub-tribes some are now socially separated from the original

Chutiya community anc h              TFn 7rpt9Iplpg Olffprpr4 !opnwy, Prl                     RPwr

hand, different sub-clans like Rehiya ChutiVa, Halika cluulya, Puruk Chutiya and Spnari chuoy4 are 501 associated with main foundation and gre deveiqping a rich cultural fQpndation of Chutkia,

1.7 Physical Features

The Mongolian characteristics are visible on the physical features of Chutiyas. Their physical appearance is not different from the other Mongoloid people of Assam. The Chutiyas are usually of medium hei_ght and stocky. Their physical structures are tou_gh with stron_g cheek bones, slit eyes, flat nose, a sli_ght _growth of hair appearance of mouth. The finger of hand is smooth and short. Hair on the body and mustaches are rare among^–the Chutiyas. Basically their skin colour is riot so black and so white. The females are usually short and have thick and strai_ght hair. They are strongly built and possess charming features. Their cuff muscles of leg usually tough; waist is big and breasts high. The males have high chest and one fourth of them have swollen chest. Both male and female walk very fast.

1.8 Linguistic Affinity of the Chutiyas

Chutiyas have a distinct language of their own, which is called Chutiya language. The original language is not in vogue among the Chutiyas at present. They now speak a mixed form of language which is neither original Chutiya language nor proper standard Assamese language. It is a mixed from of typical Assamese language where are 20 to 30 percent words of Chutiya language.

There can be hardly any doubt that the critical events of history had adversely affected the Chutiya language leading it to the verge of extinction_ In 1523 A.D,, Ahom King Suhumgrnung alias Dihingia Raja held his away over the Chutiya territory and subjugated the people. The Chutlyas barring the levitate or Priest class were griven away from their homeland. They were scattered all over the Ahom territory and outside as well, Some entered the Kachari kingdom, 6orirw into the Koch Kingdom and some of them snicked into the might:10ring irJ hills, These circumstances led these Chutiyas to abandon their own language for communication.

However, the Dibongia Deoris or the priestly class of the Chutias preserved the Chutiya language. At present this is popularly known as Deari­Chutiya lansuagp. This language belonged to the Tibeto-Burman family which is the frnportpnt group of indo-,Chinese language. 18

G.A. qrlerson in his; ‘Linguistic Survey of India’ observes Chutiya language indeed, inay fairly claim to be the original language of upper Assam. The language of this race now only known to the families of the priest, contain 4 great propoiTtion of Sanskrit and Hindu words” 49

He further holds: “The known Chootiyah or (Chootiya) language appears to have been the only language in existence at the period of the advent of the Ahoms to Assam

W.B. Brown in his ‘Deori Chutiya Language’ writes “the people are generally called Deoris simply; the language more properly known as Chutiya,.. the other two divisions of the race, the Hindu Chutiya and Ahorn Chutiya have long since lost all trace of their language and origin and have become merged in the general mass of semi Hinduised Assarnese; but their original connection with Deoris has never been disputed , and is freely acknowledged by themselves,”si

E.T. Dalton in his ‘Tribal History of Eastern Indio’ observes; “It was long

before anything was discovered of their language; but an isolated colony on 111

the river Dikirung in Lakhimpur, calling themselves ‘Deori-Chutiya’ were found

who had a peculiar language which they called Chutia, and they were styled Deoris, because they had been attached as priests to certain temple, formerly of great celebrity, above Sadiya, called them Tamreswari Mai, where human sacrifices were yearly offered. Another colony of the same tribe was found by Colonel Hannay occupying a very remote position in upper Assam and still performing the priestly duties of a certain shrine dedicated to Kali. If the dialect spoken by their Deoris be truly the language of the Chutias, it proves the linguistic affinities of the tribe to be with Garo and Bodo.”52

E.A. Gait in his book ‘A History of Assam’ says; “the Chutiyas now number about a twelfth of a million, and are found Chiefly in Lakhimpur and the adjunct part of Sibsagar. Their language, which is still known to the

Deories, or priestly section of the tribe, is unmistakably Bodo, but their appearance suggests that they have in their frames a considerable infusion of Shan blood”53

Surya Kumar Bhuyan in his Wochori Buranji) writes “The Moran and the Chutiyas in upper Assam, Whose language, not although extinct as yet, though apparently dying out rapidly, would seem to prove them to be closely akin to the Kachari (Bodo) race”.54

The Census report of India, Assam, 1881, mentioned that ‘the language spoken by the Deories-Chutiyas has a strong affinity with Kachari, the Chutias may, therefore, be regarded as a branch of the Bodo race.”55

The Census Report of India, Assam, 1931, mentioned; “The Chutiya liguage is now spoken by Deori section of Chutiyas, most of whom are to be found in Lakhimpur” .56 The Census of India 1961, mentioned; “The Chutiyas are very old inhabitants of upper Assam. The language spoken by the Deori Chutiyas has a strong affinity with Kachari, and the Chutiyas may, therefore be regarded as a branch of the Bodo race”.57

The Assam District Gazetteers, Lakhimpur 1976 and Sibsagar 1967 mentioned; The Chutiyas like the Koch and the Ahoms, are one of the race castes (plain tribes) of Assam. Their physical appearance suggests a Mongolian origin, their language, which is steel preserved amongst the Deoris or priestly clan, belongs to the Bodo family and it seems probable that they are section of the great Bodo race which includes the Garo, the Kachari and the Tippera”.58

From the above observations it becomes clear that Chutiya language of the Chutiyas is a branch of Tibeto-Burman Bodo origin and the language now spoken by the Dibangiya section of the Deoris is originally Chutiya language and that the Deoris are only a section of the Chutiyas. Hence the term first used by W.B. Brow as Deori-Chutiya language still holds good. In course of time due to socio-historical and geographical factors the Chutiyas and the Deoris except Dibongiya Deori section were left to speak their original dialect. The course of history compelled that people to leave their own dialect and merge with the Assamese language. However, they have not completely abandoned their own language. They use at least 20 to 30 percent Chutiya words in their dialect at present. Hence the dialect spoken by the Chutiya people is not exactly similar to standard Assamese language. It is a peculiar form of typical Assarnese language. Same address- oriented terms and some kinds of noun, adjective, verb and adverbial terms used in their present dialect seem to have beef significant.

The address oriented terms such as ‘bobal (father), ‘yoi’ or Ioio` (mother), ‘dai’or ‘cictiti’ (uncle), ‘mai’ or ‘mahiti’ (aunty), ‘pef’ or 1pahitil (aunty), ‘rnomaii or ‘rnornaiti’ (uncle), `kar or ‘kohl’ (brother), `bai’ or ‘boltil (sister), ‘aowa’ (baby), ‘pelingai (adult boy), etc. are still prevailing among the Chutiyas. This dialect bears affinity to present Deori-Chutiya language. However many noun oriented terms of original Chutiya language still exists in the dialect of Chutiyas. For Example- ‘Ati’ (village), ‘Dati’ (Border),’ `Dank’ (Mosquito), ‘Dor’ (cloth hanging rope), ‘Dokoro’ (wooden martle). ‘Dun’ (small Basket), ‘Ingkorii (one inset), Vobakal (cleaner), 1./oburcif (vegetable curry), ‘kuduna’ (grinding pot), ‘kuki’ (Basket), `Macloli’ (ornaments), Wigwam’ (water protector), ‘Pupa’

(breast), `Roina’ (cleaning instrument), ‘Takun’ (Stick), ‘Tadung’ (cooking spun) etc. are still existing among the Chuttyas.

Different adjective, verb and adverbial terms of original language also exist among them. For example — ‘omoto’ (heart), ‘ayoi’ (painful), ‘ayoiyo’ (very pain), ‘begs’ (quick), ‘bugi’ or fbuki) (carrying), ‘churuka’ (clean), Vep-depia’ (ful o pot), Vow’ (friend), ldogiyal (beat), Vakarat (not ready to eat), ‘arabong’ (sound of falling), ‘duba’ (bury), ‘dhupa’ (over dried), ‘era’ (oh yes), lgangera’ (roughly), egobong’ (sound of swimming), ‘goroha’ or ‘goba’ (covered by hand), ‘gujok’ (thorn), ‘gugung’ (long sharp weapon), ‘hedem’ (selfish), ‘hake’ (bamboo’ bridge), ‘Iwo’ (curse), ‘hereko’ (tasteless), ‘helengjeleng’ (weakness), ‘helengi (weak), ‘hisebaj (cleaning water), ‘kujunga’ or ‘kungo; (bronken waist), ‘kora’ (bring out from pot), ‘iobi` (take), ilekia’ (this type), ‘lung’ (very high), flikota’ (hard to cut), “pachiba’ (ask to do), ‘raideng’ (big cane), `rip-rip’ (sweet wind), ‘rim-firni (mid test of chili), ‘rohila’ (stopping), ‘ruka’ (putting hand in hole), ‘sew’ (habit), ‘sew-bew’ (character), ‘teou’ (though) etc.59

Experts are of the opinion that this dialect bears affinity to Tibeto­Burmese, Assam Burmese language of Bodo origin. Therefore it has been observed that the Deori- Chutiya language has been a cause of uniformity among the Chutiyas inseparable and in 30 March 2001 the government of Assam approved and signified this language as Deori Chutiya language.

1.9 Material Cultural

The Chutiyas are maintaining almost all tribal culture, custom and tradition in their social life. The people of this community are mainly dependent upon agriculture. Therefore, all of their rituals and festivals are

related to agriculture. The people basically lived in the interior and remote rural places or in the river banks or sometimes in the forests and jungles. it seems that they always to fight against the nature and natural disaster far their survival_ Therefore, they traditionally practice some collective works such as community fishing, group hunting like pursing and trapping wild elephant and buffalo, collection of fire woods in the jungle, community works in agricultural field such as, bools of plowing, harvesting and seeding of agricultural paddy output like rice and other seeds etc.

i ney aiso use the tattle and buffalo carts etc. for the purpose of carriage of their paddy products, fire wood, household items, newly married couples due to their poor communication, infrastructure as well as shortage of modern amenties and education.

Chutiya community is one of the reserved type and hardly they mix up with other people. They more often separate themselves from the other societies and prefer living in isolation. Therefore they establish their villages in interior places. In a village there live atleast fifty or sixty families and they build their but and Cluing glairs (house on bamboo poles will) thatched roofs and bamboo made floors built few feet above the ground ) maintaining a little gap from each family. As they basically establish their village on the banks of the rivers, they build their houses maintaining parallel sequence with the river.

The village life of Chutiyas is very cblourful. They always maintain unity among themselves. There is a head in every village who maintains the law and controls the awkward situations if any. The villagers assemble together in community works and with unity they perform the activities of their rural cornrnuribl walk of life like-from fishing, hunting, sowing, preparing and harvesting crops to building huts or Chang Ghars, celebrating a marriage ceremony and_obscnrving death rituals and so on.

The Chutiyas are used to two kinds of dwelling – one is ground plant and the other is Chang Ghar. In every family we can have a Moral Ghat. (a bed room for married and unmarried young members ), one Bur Ghor (where they cook meal and observe rstuals).There is also a Bharat Ghar (storage of agricultural product) and a Guhaii Ghor (or keeping animals) in every family. They use bamboo, wood, and thatching grass for roof which is very comfortable for living.

2. The Primitive Traits

Introduction

The primitive traits are largely visible among the all ethnic mongoloid or origin of Assam. As a mongoloid Ethnic tribe the primitive traits are still prevalent among the Chutiyas. The primitive traits are displayed in this material culture, habitation pattern, food habits, dress and ornaments, rites and rituals and ritually in different ancestor worships, community fishing and hunting, community works (Florio Moro) etc. The Chutiyas traditionally bears the elements of primitive trait from earlier.

2.1. Habitation Pattern

Chutiyas are one of the indigenous groups of the soil of Assam. They five their lives with the downtrodden norms as enforced by the natural calamities and unfavourable geographical patterns. They reside mostly in the interior places near by the jungle or on the banks of the rivers. They have no road communication facilities. Transportation infrastructure is very poor. River is the only way of communication and boat is the only means of transportation of the Chutlyas.

Chutiya community is one of the reserved type and hardly they mix up wits other people. They more often separate themselves from the other societies and prefer living in isolation. Therefore they establish their villages in interior places. In a village there live atleast fifty or sixty families and they build their but and Cluing glairs (house on bamboo poles will) thatched roofs and bamboo made floors built few feet above the ground ) maintaining a little gap from each family. As they basically establish their village on the banks of the rivers, they build their house maintaining parallel sequence with the river. 

The village life of Chutiyas is very cblourful. They always maintain unity among themselves. There is a head in every village who maintains the law and controls the awkward situations if any. The villagers assemble together in community works and with unity they perform the activities of their rural cornrnuribl walk of life like-from fishing, hunting, sowing, preparing and harvesting crops to building huts or Chang Ghars, celebrating a marriage ceremony and_obscnrving death rituals and so on.

The Chutiyas are used to two kinds of dwelling – one is ground plant and the other is Chang Ghar. In every family we can have a Moral Ghat. (a bed room for married and unmarried young members ), one Bur Ghor (where they cook meal and observe rstuals).There is also a Bharat Ghar (storage of agricultural product) and a Guhaii Ghor (or keeping animals) in every family. They use bamboo, wood, and thatching grass for roof which is very comfortable for living.

2.2. Food Habit

Chutiyas have developed.their food habit on the basis of climatic and geographical parameters .They have formed their eating behavior depending on the things made available to them in their backward interior habitant pines by the nature in different seasons. Therefore, naturally their cuisines are bounded  to be spectrum of mostly non-vegetarian items along with veg numbers too as fishing and hunting are the common favourite occupations of the chutiyas    fish and meat except beef.

They still observes the tribal customs like preparing and consuming rice beer, consuming dry fish and meat, preparing (bamboo shoot) From spout of bamboo ponitenga and khoroli from mustard seeds, then different types jolpon from different species of rice and so on. Jalpan is a kind of peculiar food item used to be offered to the guests when rice beer is not available. Though rice is their staple food, they almost include all types of both the veg and non-veg items in their food habit which is consumable and harmless and which adds taste to their tongue. Paraboiled rice, various vegetables and herbs like sukuta (dried jute leal), leaf of Neem tree, monimuni, durnbon, vhedoiloto, masundori etc. all these are from the home gardens and wild plantations, black gram, green gram, asparagus pen, black bean, gourds and so on are their favourite food items. They have the habit of taking borer rice boiled inside green bamboo tubes. Cakes made from rice flour (pithy) is one of their favourite light food ..441114einthicitionitiemprit or after corning back from a laborious job.

There are some traditional food items of the Chutiyas which they used at their festivals and important occasions. In marriage ceremonies, they prepare a kind of mumps out from rice flour by adding warm water called bhot pith°. The akhoi (kind of popcon prepared from bora rice) is the another important item et the marriage.

2.3 Occupation

Assam is predominantly an agricultural state known widely for the richness of its natural beauty and peculiar rural tribal life styles of the indigenous groups. Out of these native habitants of this soil, Chutiya community is one of the most prevailing ethnic numbers. Chutiya is a self-sufficient community capable of meeting their daily needs on their own. They have chosen agriculture as the main way out of living. They get themselves busy with the cultivation of different seasonal crops throughout the year. Paddy i.e. rice is placed as the main agricultural item while mustard, jute, sugarcane and different kinds of vegetables are included as other important varieties for cultivation by the Chutiyas. Ahu and Bao crops; which are a kind of jhoom or shifting cultivation are the most frequent items among paddy cultivations.

Shifting cultivation or jhoom cultivation is the most feasible and essential one for the Chutiyas as their daily lifestyle is designated mostly to unfatourable geographical distributions like-backward and interior places, banks of the rivers, down areas or the areas near by the jungle and so on, which easily get distorted by flood. In such cases, cultivation of Sall crops appear quite impossible and shifting cultivation becomes inavailable.
The cultivation period of Ahu and Bau starts in the month of Puh and
lagh of the Assamese calendar. By ploughing, spading and leveling the soil for more than 3/4 times, the ground is made muddy as required and it becomes ready for planting the Ahu and Boo saplings together. Muddy ground is a must: for the plantation of both the crop types.

Ahu and Bau cultivations are dry cultivations. Water provision is not needed in the cultivated field during the period of growing the saplings and in 

the husbandman i.e. the cultivator has to remain quite busy with its cultivation process continuously for sly months.
Besides these, Chutiyas also show their immense interest in growing some common vegetables like- Lai, Lofa, Paleng (kinds of herbs in our regional language), Potato, Ginger, Lady’s Finger, Brinjal, Papaya, Cucumber, Radish, Gourd, Pumpkin etc. these vegetables are the traditional numbers of the Chutiyas.
Apart from laborious hard-headed job of cultivation, fishing and hunting are the favourite hangouts of the Chutiyas to make a way out for fulfilling their daily needs. They catch fish from the neighbouring rivers and ponds more often using the traditional angling hook. Moreover there are lots of other tricks too for fishing like-piercing the fish with a sharp pointed stick, then by using the handmade fishing equipments like -Jokai, Poloh, Thuha, Khalaha and so on. For hunting also they use their traditional arms and weapons. They smoke the ccllected fish and meat in their r..Sukatil- (a fire place of the Chutiyas in their common language) for preserving it for a long time.

Besides all these, they highly depend on their domestic animals for meat, milk and for sonic other daily activities. They domesticate animals and birds like–buffalo, cow, goat, pig, duck, hen and so on. They use buffalo and cow or ox for ploughing, carrying the craft and for milk. Pig, goat, duck, and hen are used for meat. Duck and hen arc also used for eggs while goal is used for milk at times.

Handloom and textile is another occupation of this community. Basically the women section gets themselves involved in this profession for every reason and season throughout the year The women prepare the ball of thread from natural product like cotton, silkworm, muga, cocoons etc_ and weave cloth by using the traditional handloom method and finally prepare the dresses they need from it.

Chutiya people are very hard working and instead of sitting idle they always get themselves busy with agricultural works and other household activities to fulfill their daily requirements. Their economic condition is not very sound i.e. Chutiya people are very poor because they are crippled by the natural disasters and calamities quite frequently. As they live in isolated and very remote places somewhere by the banks of the rivers or nearby jungles, the overflowing water of the rivers always affect their agricultural field and habitant places and make their lives hazardous and backward in nature.

Backwardness is witnessed not onlyin the economic scenario of the Chutiyas,  but in the field of education too. Unavailability of adequate infrastructure for high education in their interior inhabitant places results in having no any candidate from the community to make spaces for him/her in the civil services whether it is national or state level or in any other services too. Setting apart the issue of civil services, if we go for looking at higher official ranks at central or state level, we can’t even find a single member representing the community. This community is always deprived of having its preference in the field of administrative powers which it should deserve as Indian Constitution speaks of equality and overall development of all the backward tribes. For instance, we can never find neither a chairman nor a single member from the tribe in any Slate Board, Corporations, Undertakings, Commissions, Committees, Assam Cooperative Society, Apex Bank etc. and so on. Majority of working numbers can be seen only in the teaching profession inadequate education facilities, economic backwardness, lack of proper exposure to other demanding job profiles and perhaps the insufficient available rights compelled the tribe to limit themselves only to teaching profession or to agriculture I despite of not having necessary amount of land and advanced farming methods and equipments ; they cannot dare to think beyond that because of their crippled condition.

2.4 Village Life

In a large village of chutiyas there inhabits 100 to 140 families. The village pattern is based mainly on rivers. They build their villages by the river banks according to the routes of the river. By the river side a route connects the whole village. There is a long poduli (route) that connects this route to the houses. The houses are called by torn as gtior. The houses or the ghars are built with poles of wood, bamboo, thatch, reeds etc. In a home of same family there are three types of houses assembled together. One house is called Moroi ghor, for the married and unmarried persons. Side ways stands the Borghor in the north direction which is used for fire place and rites and rituals. In the north side to the moral ghar there stands the chang ghar of very high. Its lower part is kept maked, from the ground level up to five to six feet above there stands the chang (of bamboo or wood sheets tights together). This house is used by the heads or old persons of the family and for guests.

In front of the moral ghat- there is the bhora( ghar (store house of paddy). The logical sequence of chutiyas says Pube Biwa!, Pachhirhe coral, Uttare Saw and dakhine garu. That is in front of the house of the east there stands the bharai ghar (store house of paddy). To the west side garaI I. e. poultry house and north direction there is the fire place (saw or borghar) and to the south a few yards away the Gohofi (house for cattle).

The Chutiyas called the making of a house as Our sofa. When someone wants to build a house he invites the villagers in an appointed day to help him in the ghar sojo and is called hada morn. After the house is completed or after that task the owner treat them with rice beer, joipon (snacks) etc. There still %xists this system of horia morn in every occasion where needs large men power to work.

2.5 Customary Law

The villagers have to obey some rules and regulations and customs. The pattern of conducting J maintaining a chutiya village is almost same. The headman of the villagers is the Gaoburch (village headman) besides for judgement of some kinds there are rnalekis. The bor-maleki is the chief justice of a crime or punishment.

For religious purposes at the village at different occasions there are the Hotula, whose chief job is to conduct rituals. Bhora iis duty is to preserve the things at temples. The Decries have to perform the work of distributing prasad.

The youth play a distinct rule in a satiety. In a chutiya society the chutiya youths serve the villagers as social workers. At any stage whether it is someone making a house, building a temple, narnghar, etc. Constructing a road at village, to help at someone’s marriage and death rituals etc. The youth have a organization in every Chutiya villages is called Yuvo Sornaj or Yuvak Sangho This organization play a vital rule for the welfare of the village in every side.

3. The Distinct Cukture

Introduction

There are different traditional material and non material distinctive culture are still prevalent among the Chutiyas. The dress and ornaments, Art and Craft, totemism, food habit, specific marriage rituals, beliefs and faiths signify the separate characteristic features which have been there since earlier. In Bihu culture the observing of hot bihu (seven days bihu} signify a pecbliar brhu culture among the Chutiyas where the perform, long bihu (bihu dance perform by the girls in the jungle), Huchari and Join, noch (a king of bihu dance performing jointly by two person),

The distinctive rites and rituals like Bor sewn sokom, holika joluwo sokom, lokhirni sabho, donooria sokom, Garokhio sokom, Ai sobha, Apcswori sobho, Gupini 5obho, fethuoro sokotn, Guholi sokom, religious rites and rituals like worship of mother goddess kechcrikhoti or trameswori puja, kuber puja, ancestor worship, sacrifice of animals, birth and death rituals like baj ufuwo, suddhi karan, kaj kororn, holiko jolouwo sok= etc are the specific distinct rites and rituals prevalent among the Chutiyas, Along with this rites and rituals the different beliefs and faith like Bhekuli biya, Dheki tono, Jade (magic), Tontra and Montra are the peculiar belie,fs and faiths still prevalent among the m.

In marriage culture the prevalence of Gondharbo marriage and Nuwai Tulanj biyo signify the social characteristic features of the Chutiyac, The Gandhorba marriage are recognized by the society through a ritual which is called Oar utho, where the ikuloo buni noch’ is an interesting dance program which gives the entertainment to the people. In this ritual the ‘bhat pitho’ (prepared with rice powder through a peculiar process) and Tom pithy are the main food items. In Nuwai Tulani big, the ‘konoi kula luwa’ is an interesting ceterriony for this occasion.

Totemism is another district culture of the Chutiyas. The image of Golden cat is the community totem of the Chutiyas. According to the legend prevalent among the Chutiyas the image of Golden cat is their Royal dynastic property and it save the Royal dynasty and it is their symbol of joy and glamour,

3.1 Religion

Hindu Tranticism is the main religious practice of the Chutiyas. The Mother Goddess temples, Aar’ Thans, Ballo Baba Than or the Pewalayas are the main religious places of the Chutiyas, They observe many rites and rituals in different season of a year.

3.1.1 Supreme Deity

From ancient time Chutiyas have been worshiping the Keshaikhati Mai or Tamreswari Mal as their supreme deity through the process of sacrificing human beings and animals. Worshiping Mother Goddess with sacrifices is their main religious practice. Earlier they used to sacrifice young energetic boys as “Eloli” to Keshaikhati Mal evidently each year The Ahom king Gourinath Sigha put a ban on this practice of sacrificing human beings. Now they sacrifice animals, birds, and bottle gourds etc.

3.1.2. Village Deity

There are different village deity systems preTalent among the Chutiyas. The villagers collectively worship some common deities like Dongoria, Bum dongorio, Giro Girochi, Ratikhowa Sokarn, Bar Sobah and Lokhimi Sok= and so on. They worship these common deities for invoking the blessings of God to bring fortune for themselves. During tkle starting period of agriculture and before collecting agricultural products or going for hunting, they perform these religious functions. In these kinds of religious occasions, offerings are mainly animals, rice beer, Bhoog etc, These religious functions are common in the entire habitant areas of the Chutiyas whether it is on the bank of the river or nearby the jungle.

3.1.3 Clan Deity

The Chutiyas have different clan deities. Kuber is the main clan deity of the Chutiyas.They worship Kuber as the God of wealth. They believe that they are the sons of God Kuber. The Gorakhiyu Oangoria and Apresori are another clan deities of the Chutiyas, Cow and buffalo are the main domestic animals of the Chutiyas and as they believe that Gorokhiya Baba is the God of domestic animals, they worship Gorokhiyo Baba every year by offering banana and kecho piths etc. in the field.

The Chutiya Women worship ‘Apresoril as their clan deity. They worship this deity for good health of the girls and specially of the pregnant women.

3.1.4. Malevolent Spirit

The Chutiyas believe that there are some malevolent spirits which are responsible for all the sufferings and diseases of both the human beings and the domestic animals. Therefore, they’ always try to satisfy these evil spirits through worship and incantations (mantras). These malevolent spirits are namely- Khuba khubuni, Bhoot (ghost), Jokh and Jokhini, Back etc. Whenever they trace some symptoms confirming the existence of evil spirits in human beings, they either worship it or go for a magician to relieve the suffered person.

3.1.5. Ancestor Worship

The Chutiyas traditionaly practice a kind of Ancestor worship which is called HOW Joluwo Solemn or Bur-Sewn Solemn The old people both male and female assemble in an interior _ place far from the villages or an uninhabited place and worship the God and Goddesses by sacrificing animals. They take rice-beer, meat etc. after offering it to Gods and Goddesses. While performing this Halite). Joiuwo Worship, all bhoktas present there must be nude or naked. These functions are observed every year for the sake of the welfare of men, animals, agriculture and universal peace.

These are the religious practices and functions followed by the Chutiyas. They traditionally follow these peculiar kind of religious practices which are not prevalent in any other society of Assam. All these peculiar customs and traditions make the existence of the Chutiya community quite prominent in the soil of Assam among its indigenous counterparts.

3.2 Life Cycle

3.2 Life Cycle

Life is a gift of God Chutiyas believe that there is a vital soul of a living being and after death this soul submerges with other souls. They believe birth, marriage and death depend upon God’s will. 131osoming or flowering of life through birth, being a master of oneself through marriage, going back to the origin from where fife evolved through death is the three moments of life of the Chutiyas.

3.2.1. Birth

When one Chutiya woman is in a family way she is called Gabhori (symptoms of pregnancy occurs). A pregnant women is not allowed to do hard work but there are no dietary restrictions. There are some expert women who at the time of delivery helps the pregnant mother. The pregnant mother is made to sit on the floor and a rope hanging from the ceiling or above, so that she can apply force by holding the rope. Excepting two or three experienced women, no other persons are allowed there at the time of child birth. The women cuts the umbilical cord by a sharp slice of green bamboo. In order to protect the new born from evil spirits, branches of the plum or injube tree is kept hang round the house along with fish hooks and nets. It is only after Warisora” {the time when remaining portion of the umbilical cord in the navel heats and falls down) that the supposed impurities (Chutivo) are over and the motier along with the newly born baby is brought out of the house fbojoloi ufuwa) in public after the performance of ‘SudhiSokati-C. At this ‘Sudhi Sokoar a bow and arrow is touched by the boy infant and a silk mu/iura is touched by girl infants. The baby infants are provided with a pillow filled with mustard seeds is a common practice.

3.2.2. Marriage

For a young Chutiya boy marriage is indispensable. The boys marry within the age of 18 to 25 years. In case of marriage they have to strictly follow clan exogamy. They are mainly monogamy, a record wife is taken after the death of the first wife. Once a girl is married she belongs to her husband’s family. The children take their father’s clan name. After the death of the husband the younger brother of the deceased does not marry the wife of the elder brother. If anyone violates this social prescription he is punished by the priestly council of the village.

Chutiyas have mainly two different forms of marriage namely – ‘Bor Biwa’ and rGandharba Wyo.’. Another system of marriage was of ‘Basta Khata Niyomr. In this system of marriage if the boy is of other unknown clan and he desires to marry a girl he has to serve at least one year at the bride’s house. If the father is not satisfied at his works he may be cancelled for the suit.

In the ‘Bor Rive (Open marriage or arranged marriage) both the guardians consent together with bride and groom and is performed in a festive atmosphere with uttering of Vruir (Thrilling sound uttered by women in concert on any joyful occasion) singing of various types of marriage song by wirnen folk amidst shouts and noise and sound of drums (Dhoo0 in which all rites and rituals are performed. The Borahi Chutiyas never married a girl by this system
The most widely prevalent type of marriage is 1Gandharba` or marriage by elopement. In this type of marriage, the couple concerned takes the initiative. The boy with the help of his friends takes away his sweet heart on an appointed day. No formal ceremony is performed in such marriages.

3.2.3. Death

The Chutiyas believe that after death the soul regenerates into other souls or lives according to its virtues and sins done during its lifetime. It is seen that they have no permanent marshall or burial places. The corpse is placed on the pyre in the north-west corner. The Chutiyas also believed that if someone sacrifices his soul directly to God or Goddess, then he will get a position in the pure or the hole heaven. Their religious custom or ‘Soli’ (Sacrifice of human) was based on this theory, and their religion encourages them to devote their lives in front of their Supreme deity ‘Ketchaikhaiti Moi’. In this, a young energetic boy without any spot on his body (complete purification of body and soul) has to sacrifice or die for peace and prosperity for all the community and Kingman. It is a different custom of death rituals. The ‘Bali’ knows that he is going to die very soon but does not want or try to escape from it. It is significant for the Chutiyas.

Now-a-days, when a death occurs, immediately he is kept outside the house and kept in front of the door yard. Generally the last rites (cremation) of the dead are performed formally by the gathering of the people from the deceased persons own khel, relatives and other people of the village. The dead bidy is kept naked on a bed sheet, washed after application of gram and turmeric paste over the body,

All the family members get together around the dead and pay homages by kneeling down having given joydhobni (uttering of holy sounds) by the village elders. After this two or four persons hold the deadbody holding its head portion to backward, Generally people perform their rites away in a interior place like riverside or edge of jungles.

3.2.4 Rituals for the Dead

It is seen that they have no permanent marishali or burial places. The corpse is placed on the pyre in the north-west corner and the pure or the hole is made or dug accordingly. The villagers manage the fire wood and other materials After the cremation is over, the gathering people in a group who took part in the rites bow down before the sitting society, so that the soul of the dead does not take offence. After the cremation or burial those who accompany the dead, return to their respective homes, after bathing outside house pass over a fire, already kept ready in front of the gate. It is to mention that the eldest or the youngest of the sons first holds fire on the pyre.

For three days the family members do not take anything boiled or cooked, On the third day ‘Morn is performed and on the tenth day ‘Doha-Karma’ anei the eleventh day ‘Koji or the Suckii^–ii from ^,,vhen the family members can take normal food. After these rituals are over there is no restriction of any kind,

3.3. Art and Craft

The Chutiya people are always expert in Art and Craft. There have a reference in Assam History that during the time of annexation of Chutiya

kingdom by the Ahcpms in 1.523 A.             the Ahorns got different people having
different professions like- Blacksmith, Goldsmith, Weaver, Cobbler, Carpenter etc. They also captured many wealth and property like Helol as like gun) Baru – Borcha (weapons) Kekura Dula (palanguin) Aruan (carriage) peckcion (spihoon) Danda-chats (Umbrella having strick), Mai hang (a Metallic plate for catering toad), Bhog fora (a water vessel with a sport, etc).^L The Khanikar Khei of Chutiya (a class of Chutiya) is a professional class famous for Art and Architecture and for carpentary works. After subjugation of Chutlya Kingdom. these classes are recognised by the Ahern Kings for carpentary works. The people of this class traditionally use the khanikar title still at present.} They built the buildings, design on rock, prepared the wood work and bamboo craft -like Data (carriage) Khatula (plague) gosa (land stand), Dheki, Mora, etc. Every Chutiya male is an expert in bamboo works. The can prepare the comfortable houses or but and Chong ghar by wood and bamboo. Every male can prepare their articles of household needs like pachi, kharahi (basket) Duku Doi°, Kula, Chalani, Batumi, langfai, Battery, etc. For fishing and hunting the Chutiyas prepare different instruments like Jakoi, Khalai, Khoiohar Niagara, Sepo, Podia; Lathi, Dhenu Kw- or Bow and Arrow, Mitdah, (Sword) Jai, (fishing net) etc.

Handloom is one of the major calling of the Chutiya women 1 hey can prepare different kinds of cloths to meet their needs. The male people of Chutiyas prepare the instruments of handloom like Attar, Takuri, Ugha, Cheraki, Leta etc.

The Chutiya people are also expert in preparing the earthen ware. They use the different kinds of earthen pot and pottery for their household works. These potters are still found in Dhakuakhana area of Lakhimpur District in Assam.

Goldsmith is one of the Professional Classes of Chutiyas. This class traditionally purify the gold from the river sand of Subansiri. This class also traditionally prepare the golden ornaments. They are still found in Bogidani in Lakhimpur District and Lothia in Dhemaji District.

Blacksmith is another class of Chutiyas. This class traditionally continue their profession till at present and they prepare different iron articles. They are ‘rill to be found in Gangmow in Sonitpur district.

3.4. Dress and Ornament

In Chutiya community, children hardly put on any cloth at their very tender age. They start wearing clothes when they become grown up kids nearing the age of 20 to 11.They use Dukhotia a kind of cloth woven in loom) or a Gamocha to cover the lower part of their body. The teenagers wear Anwasuia ( a short shirt of cotton ) as the cover of their upper body purtion.The male adults wear Sooriya ( a cotton dhoti) and Borsula (a big shirt ) and take around the neck a aornocha or a Cheileng Chador with a Paguri (turban) on head. But they are seen keeping their ,upper cart bare while working in the agricultural field. They always keep a Surator Tupufa (home made cigar) hound at one end of the gnmochas ,During the festivals and other occasions the same dress is worn but borsula is of silk for special events) in a clean, respectful and decent manner. They use wooden Fonoti or Xhororn (a kind of sandal or footwear made of wood) to support their feet. Long Keru (a kind of ear ring) is worn on both the ears and one single rnoni (srnall round beads used in the ornaments to give a rich look) with a lace called Motornonj on the neck.

The teenage girls wear three- piece suit consists of a cougar rnekhela, a pator chador Dna’ a blouse. Junbiri_f Dugdugi, odoli,Garnkharu, and rings are the ornaments that a Chutiya girl uses to decorate herself.

Chutiya women are very expert in handloom and textile. They prepare clothes on their own for the entire family as they have got the expertise in weaving _During the winter, home woven Err’ Chador (Endi Shawl) is used as a protection against cold. The women folk wear a long cotton rnekhela (a long girdle) up to the ankles hold by a methani (a knot above the chestline to keep the grip of the cloth on the body) and a Reeha or a Chador (a wrapper for the upper part) to dress themselves.

The married women wear a gamocha or a chador as Uroni (covering the forehead and the back with cloth} eitherlfor their shyness or for respect for the seniors. However, the practice of wearing reeho and full sleeve blouses is also there among the women in special occasions. The rnekhelos and garnochcs are woven with colourful threads and similarly, various colouring agents are used to colour^– or tinge the clothes. The women often keep a Hanchoti (a small narrow parcel made of cloth used to carry betel nuts and leaves) and a dub katari (a small knife) with them.

Among the gold and silver ornaments worn by the Chutiya women are Kern, Jangphai. thurios which are ear rings and modal’, (shaped like dhol or lolk drum), dugdugi (a heart shaped locket), golpato (a necklace with pendants) are worn on the neck and khanus (bangles)are on the Wright.

3.5. Rites and rituals

The Chutiya people observe different kinds of rites and rituals of which some are religious and some are social. Chutiya’s religion is based on trantisism. So the religious rites of Chutiyas are based on trantic faith. In every religious rituals like Dongoria sokam, kaiika, sokam, bhakat sewn, Ai Sakam„ Garakhiya sokam, etc. They sacrifice animals and devote it to their tutelary deity.

3.5.1. Religious rights

The Chutiyas maintain many rites and rituals base on their religion trantic faith. Kachoikati or Tromeswari and Siva-Parboti or Burho Buhl or Kundimarno are their supreme deity and they worship this deity in every occasion, Besides the major deity the Chutiyas also have number of household deities. Among these household deities they worship one deity on agricultural nuroose one on cattle farming purpose and one as household deity.

The Chutiyas maintain a number of rites and rituals in different purpose like Ai Sokom, Apeswari Sokam, Santa jalua Sokam, Borhobah, Bar sewa sokam, lakhimi adora sokam, Garakhiya sokam, guhali sokam, khuti hobah, Jo! dangoria sokam, that arangoriya sokam, no khuwa sokam, na-purusar sokam etc. Among these rituals the SOlitO Z011.10, No-purusar sokam, mitokar chaul khiwa, Bosarakio Sokam, Mitrakor jalpon etc. are observe as death rituals. The lakhimi sobs, nongol dhowo pitho, lakhimi adora or Dag ono, nangot dhows nitha, quj luwa, nokhowo etc. are observe for agricultural purpose. The Garakhia sokam, guhali sokam, khuti hobah, moh jokh puja etc. are observe for cattle farming purpose and if someone suffers from illness then they observe the Ai sokam, opeswori sokam, gupini sokam, kaliko mots sokarn etc. The Bar sewa sokam, lakhimi sobha, bar hobah, dangoria sokam are the community rituals which are observed for the welfare of the village and the villagers. For fishing and hunting the Chutiya village community observe the jol dangoria sokam, kalika mots, jokh puja, habi dangoria sokam, etc.

The Chutiya people believe that the satisfaction of the deities is good fortune for human being. Therefore, they maintain the different kinds of religious and social rituals in every situation. Through these rituals they ask for blessing of different deities.

3.5.2. Festivals

The Chutiya people traditionally observe three major festivals namely Ivraghi Purnima festival or kachaikhati puja, Bihu festival and Durga Puja festival. in every maghi purnima the Chutiya people traditionally worship their supreme deity kechaikhati or Tomreswari with sacrifice of animals. In this festival the people performed the deodhani Nitya (A kind of traditional dance performed solely by women) and Deo utha Nitya (A dance performed by the person who cuts the neck of the sacrificed animal): The people who come to sacrifice animals don’t take any meal before the rituals are over. The blood of the sacrificed animal is the main offering for the people. This blood is directly rAkei by the Bolikatia (The man who cuts the animal) and the other people take these blood with rice powder or other offerings. The A4oghi purnima or kachaikhati puja organized in the Ai-thans (A kind of mother goddess trantic temple). It is to be noted here that in every Chutiya dominated area there is an Ai-than (mother goddess temple). In this temple the Chutiyas observe the Kechaibhati Puja and Durga Puja. These practices are still in vogue in many areas of Assam some of them are Harhi Dewaloi in Dhakuakhana, Korsorn Dewoloi in Lakhimpur, Gangamow than in Sunitpur,

The Durga Puja festival is one of the important festivals of the Chutiyas, almost all Chutiya people traditionally observe this puja with heart and soul, During the time of Chutiya rule there was sacrifice the both man and animals at Tomreswari Mai Mandir at Sadiya. At present they sacrifice the animals in the Ai-thans (Mother goddess temple) and they perform the Dec-utha Nach in their. The people believe that Mar-Durga always defend the people, so their duty is to satisfy Ma-durgo through sacrifice.

The Bihu festival is the main social festival for the Chutiyas. They observe the three Bihus: the Bohog Bihu or Range Bihu, Magh Bihu or Bhugoli Bihu and the Kati Bihu or Kongo!”^. Bihu. In Bohag Bihu the Chutiyas observe the Sot Bihu (seven days of Bihu) tradition. The first day of Bihu is observed as Garu Bihu, the second day as Manuh Bihu (man festival), the third day as Gukhani Bihu, the fourth day as Kutum Bihu, the fifth day as Ilia Bihu and sixth day as Fat Bihu and the seventh day as Hat Bihu or Meta Bihu.

3.6 Social Organisation and Political Life

The Chutiyas have different social organizations in their village life, In every village there is a village head man. The village headman conduct the law
and order situation in the village. He has associates to help in maintaining the lavv and order situation in the village. They are known as Bora, Buruk, Ivieloki, Bar Adelaki, Batik etc. The village people are also divided into four divisions based on their age group viz. Bura-burhi Somaj, Deka Sornaj, Buari Sornaj and Gorokhio Sornaj. The first division contains of old men and women who maintain the social and religious beliefs and practice in the village. In the Burn
Sornoj there are one Hotulo, one Bhoroli, one Mecifhi, four or five Dearis, two Nornloguos, a_ group of Bolikatios, Nomghorios, Bor(k, Pachani etc. Every portfolio has a specific duty. The Hotuip is the chief of religious practices of the Chutiyas. The Sharon is the storekeeper of the religious places like Mons and NoAghars. The Medhi is the collector and depositor of goods and he deposits and receives collection from the village to the treasury. The Deories are the distributor of goods and Prasad in the religious functions or Puja or Sakarya. The Norriloguos read and recite the religious scriptures and they start the religious prayes. The balikotios cut the sacrifice animals like buffalo, goat and duck which are offered to the deity by the people. The nanighoria’s duty is to maintain the than (temple) and narnghar. The bark distributes messages to the villages.
The next village organization of the Chutiyas is Deka Sornaj (young)
k
which k very strong and in the principal work force of the village. The young people assemble in the Deka sang or Sangho and they take all kinds of decision on their. In Deka soma/ there is one Doipati or Noyak, one Deka Bora and one Tiri Bora. The Dolopoti is the chief of the Deka Somaj. The Deka Bora organizes the village young boys and he is the leader among the young boys. The liri Bora is the organizer of the young girls of the village. He has the responsibility of every young girl during the time of the festivals. The Deka soma. maintains law and order situation in the village with the help of the village headmanand his associates. The Deka somaj organizes the cultural activities like Bihu Huchari, Zeng Bihu (performed by girls at jungle in Night) Meji Bihu, religious festivals like takhimi Sokam, Kechoikhati Puja, village diety puja etc. They also organise the community fishing and in Hati- Kheda (driving way elephant) and other community works. The deka somaj also helps the village people in the death and marriage rituals with heart and soul.

The third group of the Chutiya society is Buari Somaj, The Buari Soma] is the strong work force basically in the cultural and religious festivals. In the festivals they look after the reception of the Bhaktas and the guest.

The last group of Chutiya village organization is the Gorokhia Somaj, Which consists of the children and the preadolescents boys known as cowherds. Every group of cowherds have some specific rules and regulations, This cowherds society enjoys a coulorful life. They spend their time in playing the Tanguti, Hori Cabadi, Ghlio, Pengkheia, luiro vaku, Ali-Singh, Dhup, Footbal etc. They maintain a strong unity among themselves. Historically the Chutiya gorokhia somaj is very popular in the society. There are some popular legends prevalent among the Chutiyas about the gorokhia sornaj. The gorokh/o somoj traditionally follow the ancestor wors(ip of garokhiyo dongoria in the field near the jungle by sacrificing this malevolent spirit in ancient time. There are several gorokhio do! (a tinny break temple) situated in the Chutiya populated area. In every gorokhia sornaj there is a Dolopoti who leads the organization and they annually observe the gorokhio somaj near the jungle_ The Chutiya people also observe some pujas or sokam for the welfare of domestic animals viz Guhali sokorn, gorokhia bhog, jokh pujo where the gorokhias (cow boy)

necessity to attend these pujas for worshipping this malevolent spirit.

The Horio mora is one of the important community working systems prevalent. among the Chutiyas. To harvest the agricultural products they call the village people in Haria Moro (community work). The villagers help this family by collecting the agricultural crops and by building their house, This system strengthens the social unity.

4. Geographical Isolation

The Chutiya live in the isolated remote places where there is no communication facilities available. Geographical isolation is their tradition and from ancient times, these communities live in isolation in the interior places. They prefer to live in the forest area and the remote river banks.

4.1. Historical Factors

In the first half of medieval Assam the Chutiya people isolatly established their territory in the North-Eastern part of Assam around adiva. In the first half of 16th century the Ahoms defeated the Chutiyas and subjugated their territory. After subjugationof this territory the Chutiya people were scattered to different remote places of Ahom territory. Some other Chutiya people were deported from the territory. These deported people established themselves in isolated hilly areas. This is the historical background for Geographical isolation of the Chutiyas. From this time geographic*s8lation or living in isolation became the dominant trait of the Chutiyas. In this modern age geographical isolation is not completely abandoned by this community. They still live in the remote or interior places where there is not any communication facilities available.

4.2. Economic Needs

The Chutiyas live in the remote jungle area or in the banks of the river. There are some economic and social needs. As these people traditionally depend on nature for their day to day existence, the jungle or the river is the main source of their livelihood. They collect their day to day needs like fire wood, honey, fruits, banana, cotton, jungle medicine plant, herbs, wood, bamboo, etc. They collect wood, bamboo, etc from the jungle. The river is the main transportation medium for the Chutiyas in ancient time and, therefore, the people select their habitation on the banks of the river. On the other hand, a large section of people still use the river water for drinking, bathing, washing and for agricultural purpose. So the river plays an important role in the lives of the Chutiyas. This are the economic needs of this people living in remote areas and these places yet to be developed.

At present the Chutiyas inhabit mostly the Upper Assam mainly in the undivided Lakhimpur and Sivsagar District. A few of them also live in Nagaon, Morigaon and hill sides of Karimganj district. These people traditionally maintain their geographical isolation and still they donor like to mixup with other people. In the present environmental and geographical setup no society can remain isolated in true sense. However, the Chutiyas have a peculiar characteristics of maintaining separation from other people. Here we mention the name of some Chutiya populated places in different parts of Assam. Where they maintain the isolation traditionally from earlier.

Dhemaji District
Dijmur, Sisiborgeon, Siripani, Ski kalghar, Naruwathan, Bordoloni, Lotak, Chutiabari, Khalihamari, Samar-Ian etc.
Lakhimpur District
Mornai Bebejia, Kekori Bebejia, Bordoibam, Chenaidegholi, Kulabali (Boginadi), Siajuli (Kodom), Borchapori (Ghunasuti).
Sonitpur District
Dubiya, Kalabari, Gangmow (Gohpur), Bihali, Bihaguri etc.
Tinsukia District
Makum Barakuri, Kakopathar, Lakhipathar, Filobar’.

Dibrugarh District

Lagai, Rohmoria, Lahual etc.

Sivasagar Distict

Bokota, Betbari, Charing, Dikhomukh, Nemuguri, Barakuri (Moran) etc.

Karimganj District

Adorkuna, Borgul, Bhitargul. Tarapur, Kaiyajani, Soligrarn, Kunapara Grant, Borthal.

Nagaon District

Raidongia, Hara Gaon, Jamunarnukh, Lutumari, Borbheti (Dhing)

Morigaon Distict

Lahorighat, Bharbondha, Rongadoiya, Choraibahi,

Jorhat District

Borhula, Lahing. Hazori Gaon Choraibahi, Chityakari,

Goiaghat District

Bongaon, Betiyani, Morongi, Folongi, Tengani Reserve, Dayarig Reserve Halikihat, Guwal, Na-Pamua, Subhan Gaon, Chaodang Pathar, Ath Gaon, Da­Barahi, Barn-Barahi etc.

5. Shyness of Contact with Community at Large

Shyness of contact with other community is largely visible among the Chutiyas. This is happening due to different reasons. The geographical isolation, social tradition, historical background, derogatory treatment matted out to them by other high caste people, backwardness etc. is the major causes of economic.

5.1. Geographical Isolation

Geographical isolation is one of the major causes of shyness in social behaviour of the Chutiyas. The Chutiya people not like to mixup with other people. Therefore, they isolatly live in interior and remote places like the banks of the river or near the jungle. It is their basic social characteristic. These geographically isolated people naturally have the shyness in behavior in mixing up with others.

5.2. Historical Background

Shyness of contact with community at large is visible among the Chutiyas due to some historical reasons. After the loss of the territory the Chutiyas were deported from their home land by the Ahoms and they were scattered over different remote areas where there was no contacts with other people. The Ahom king established the flora-Rebejia khel in different remote and interior places of Ahom territory where the inhabitants were mainly Chutiyas. Ahoms also established the posy system where the victim posy khel belonged to Chutiya community. On the other hand all the general pike belonged to the Chutiyas. Therefore, these people historically faced the inferiority complex and thus the shyness nature is visible among them.

5.3. Derogatory Behavior

The term Chutia or Chutiya or Sutya used in derogation sense by other communities. The general of use the term as a term for negligence and hatred, although not meant directly for the Chutiyas, greatly affect the people at large. So the Chutiya people have the shyness to identity themselves as Chutiya people with other community.

5.4. Untouchability

The high caste people considered the Chutiyas as untouchable. So there is a big social gap between the high caste people and Chutiyas. Chutiyas are not allowed to enter through the front side of the Sutras, they are not allowed to take seats with the Bhakata; they are not allowed to collect water directly from public well or tank; they are not allowed to participate in public Bhaanu and public rituals where there are the high caste people. They are not allowed to freely visit the high caste peoples residence and residential area. The high cast people not receive water, food items, piece of betelnut etc. from the Chutiyas. Therefore, the Chutiya people face shyness to contact with the other people. They take to isolatly living. This is the social factor for which the Chutiyas face shyness to contact with other community at large.

But the educated section of Chutiyas have disappearing the shyness nature. It’s basically visible among the village people of Chutiyas.

6. Backwardness

The Chutiyas are the most economical and socially backward people of Assam, There backwardness is not limited to one aspect. In every aspect like economic, social, political, occupational and educational they lag behind. There are many socio-political causes of backwardness of the Chutiyas. These can be enumerated as — historical background, political background, geographical background, natural and environmental background, social background, economic background and educational background.

6.1. Historical Background

There is a historical background for the backwardness of the Chutiyas. In 1523 the Chutiyas territory was annexed by Ahoms and the Chutiyas were subjugated. The Ahoms established these people in different places of the Ahom territory and they were appointed in different departments as general paik (labour), The Chutiya paik was not promoted to the highest post of the pike system. Only the Bora is the highest post held by a Chutiyas. After the Ahoms the British ruled over Assam but during the British rule their was no attempt by them to do away with their backwardness. Besides they suffered a lot of problem for British revenue system. In free India too their plight did not change much, However, the other communities develop their socio-political and economic status in free India.

6.2 Educational Scenario

The Chutiyas live in interior places from earlier. These places were not suitable for educational environment where there was not much schooling facilities. In addition, there was the problem of communication. They go to school on foot for a long distance. The students had to mainly the girls were deprived from education. On account of this literacy rate among the Chutiyas is still very low. Besides, although there were some venture school established in the Chutiya populated area, lack of infrastructure facilities became a hurdle in the way of education for them.

There is not an I.A.S., or an I.P.S., or I.F.S. and other such officers among the Chutiyas. Only in last April, 1998, they got an Assam Civil Service (ACS) Officer nominated as an I.A.S. one. Not to speak of any other high officials in the  Central Govt, the Chutiyas have only 2 (two) class I officers in the Assam Govt. administration. Number of doctors and engineers and other high professionals are few. there is neither a Chairman, nor a single member from this tribe in any State Board, Corporation, Undertaking, Commission, Committee, Assam Public Service Commission, Assam Co-operative Apex sank etc. This is happening because of their poverty and illiteracy and age-old subjugation by others. They depend for their livelihood mostly on agriculture with outdated farming method, Besides they have no sufficient land for cultivation and can hardly meet their necessities.

6.3. Political backwardness

In the political sides the Chutiyas political awakening is very low. There is not a notable state level political leader from this community. The presence of theb Chutiyas, in the political field is negligible, Upto this date, they got two Cabinet Ministers (Sri Soneswar Bora) in 1978-79 and Late Nagen Neog during 1991-9G) and only one Deputy Minister, (Late Durgeswar Saikia). in the Assam Govt. The present Assam Assembly has only one Chutiya M.L.A. whereas there should have been a minimum of 7 M.L.A.s on population strength. Also they cannot boast of a single Chutiya M.P. even at the end of SO years of India’s independence. This pathetic condition is due to their tribal shyness, aloofness, age-old primitive mode of living and scattered geographical isolation. As already advanced communities are in the forefront of the political arena, the Chutiyas are looked down upon and are not given proportionate nomination at the time of election. The higher echelons of political parties employ all means to deprive the Chutiya people of adequate representation at all levels.

7. Conclusion

This chapter of the proposal / report consists of the conclusion, findings, summary, observations, suggestions and policy implications based on the entire study materials in respect of this report, It is basically divided under two separate heads — a) problem created by gradual integration of the Chutiya community with other communities due to detribalization processes throughout the course of evolution of the modern society, and b) the solution of this problem by restoring their (Chutiya’s) original status by honouring their legitimate demand for reclaiming of the self-identity taking cognizance of their anthropological, 11 historical, social, educational and economic backgrounds. All these factors reflect their primitive traits, distinct culture, isolated inhabitation, feelings of inferior complexity and so on so forth.
It appears from the observations made under Chapter-2, that the Chutiyas have their unique primitive traits such as, food habits, occupation, fishing and hunting, means of communication, habitation pattern, village life etc.
Again, the Chutiyas of Assam bear distinct cultural life which are noted in Chapter-3, such as festivals, religion, life cycle, art and craft, dress and ornaments, rites and rituals etc.

Moreover, the Chutiya of Assam have been maintaining a isolated residential / inhabilitation features covering a range at remote village and riverine areas throughout the Bra hmaputra and Barak Valley (see the Chapter-4 above).
The Chutiyas of Assam have been ill-treated and considered to be a low caste people and they are never preferred for dignified living standard through the eyes of the so-called advanced sections of the people of the Assarnese Society. Thus, they obviously, feel shyness and a tendency of inferiority complex (see the Chapter-5 above).
In addition to it, the Chutiyas of Assam lag far behind in all fronts of life in comparison to other advanced communities of the State of Assam particularly in politics, employment, education and economic fields. (see thethapter-6 above).
Above all it is crystal clear and abundantly evident from the observations made almost by distinguished anthropologists, historians and research scholars that basically the Chutiyas are the off-shoot and descendents of the mighty Bodo people and they also have close affinity with the other Mongoloid people of Assam and North East India. The Bodes and the other Mongoloid peoples of the state have been recognized as Scheduled Tribes by the Presidential Order of 1950, but the Chutiyas are yet to be enlisted in the Scheduled Tribes of the Constitution
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till this date. The Bodos and some of the other Scheduled Tribes of the state are not only included in the Presidential (Scheduled Tribes) order,

but also conferred the autonomous status in varied form. But, me Chutiyas are ghastly discriminated by excluding from the Scheduled Tribes list of the country.
Apart from loosing some of their aboriginal traits with little bit in the field of language and geographical inhabitation due to the rapid progress of their counterparts at the eve of detribalization process, the major style of life in the field of primitive habits and usages, unique pattern of socio-cultural ethos, feelings of untouchability and overall backwardness reveals and indicates their tribalis nature. Hence, they deserve the constitutional recognition of separate tribes treatment that is, the status of Scheduled Tribes within the ambit of Article 342′ and 366 (25)2 of the Constitution of India.

The Chutiyas of Assam, being an indigenous group of the seat hall also got its legitimacy of special constitutional projection in accordance to the provision as has been laid down under the ‘Declaration of on the Rights of the Indigenous Peoples” adopted by the UN General Assembly on September 13, 2007 (Resolution No. 37/51).. On the other hand, it is also duty bound on the part of the Government of India as a member of the UN family who have also ratified and acceded to said declaration, to incorporate the rights of the indigenous people into her own domestic constitution which far enshrined under Articles 51 (c) and 253 respectively.

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